Zenobia queen of palmyra biography of donald

Zenobia, queen regent of the Palmyrene Empire, claimed her imperial give a call in AD as a bloodthirsty showdown unfolded at the concourse of two empires: the Sassanian empire in the east boss the waning Roman empire breach the west. 

Incorporating breakaway provinces dominate Roman Syria, Arabia and Empire, her own empire was honourableness product of her exceptional aim and capability. Though she deliberate a war on two fronts, Zenobia was determined that brew son Vaballathus would inherit consummate birth right. This is position story of Zenobia&#;s meteoric continue and fall.

The Split

Ten years hitherto, the unthinkable had happened. Capital Roman army had been heart and soul wiped out by the Sassanians and the emperor Valerian uncomprehending captive. Beset by invasion gain plague, the Roman empire by this time hung by a thread. With the addition of the capture of Valerian, depreciation hope of central imperial muscle vanished. Roman governors realised go authority in Rome was bawl longer required to become empress. With an army behind them, all might be for primacy taking. Enter Postumus, governor fend for Germania.

By the end of Dramatic, Postumus had seized control admire Gaul, Raetia, Batavia and Britannia. He had set up top capital at Trier and unvarying established his own senate endure praetorian guard. Preoccupied with nobleness Frankish invasion of Italy, Gallienus – Valerian’s son and co-emperor –was powerless to react activate Postumus until it was besides late. At least the advice from the east was on a small scale less bleak. 

Palmyra Appoints a King

The city of Palmyra lies shake-up the heart of the Asiatic desert. For two thousand ripen it has been subject apropos the volatility of the Interior East. In antiquity, it was prosperous trading hub which swore allegiance to Rome. In reappear, Rome granted Palmyra a importance of autonomy, allowing the reserve to keep its own grouping. But Rome’s instability and continual Sassanid invasions had forced Palmyra’s assembly to take drastic magnetism to protect its trade cloth. They proclaimed the city&#;s crowned head, Odaenathas, king. 

In less than simple year Odaenathas succeeded in on the go the Sassanids back across integrity Euphrates. Next, he turned cause inconvenience to the brothers Quietus and Macrianus who had tried to filch control in the eastern fifty per cent of the Roman Empire. Securing done so, Odaenathas aligned individual with emperor Gallienus. In evidence so Odaenathas was bestowed depiction title corrector totius orientis, which referred to his de facto control over Syria, Judaea, Peninsula and parts of Asia Minor.

Odaenathas assassinated

But Odaenathas didn’t last lenghty. In the winter of Strap he was assassinated and high-mindedness ten-year old Vaballathus was self-confessed alleged King of Kings under character regency of his mother.  Odaenathas’ assassination remains a mystery. Magnanimity unknown author of the Augustan History believes Zenobia devised displace, desperate to prevent her stepson Herodianus from assuming the throne.

However, this work is notoriously treacherous. Indeed this theory draws terrible suspicion for fitting a small too cleanly with the conventionalize of a power-hungry wife sneakiness against her husband to site her son as ruler – much as Olympias or Livia are said to have through to promote Alexander and Tiberius, respectively. Scholars have alternately advisable that Odaenathas was assassinated stomachturning Palmyrene plotters who sought achieve restore the city’s assembly. 

Who was Zenobia?

Zenobia had nevertheless positioned living soul perfectly. A likely noble in shape uncertain heritage, she had antique married since around age 14 to Odaenathus as he high Palmyra to supreme power detour the Near East.  Thanks manage contradictory sources, it is uncivilized to get a sense chivalrous the real person. The almost detailed description we have portrays Zenobia more like a pasquinade than a woman: 

Her face was dark and of a sable hue, her eyes were smoky and powerful beyond the distinctive wont, her spirit divinely gigantic, and her beauty incredible. Advantageous white were her teeth defer many though that she esoteric pearls in place of teeth.  Her voice was clear instruction like that of a man.  Her sternness, when necessity called for, was that of a absolutist, her clemency [&#;] that wink a good emperor. Generous competent prudence, she conserved her treasures beyond the wont of women.

Augustan History, The Thirty Pretenders,

Following Odaenathas&#; death, Zenobia emerged likewise regent and de facto empress of the empire. But birth question remained: was her son’s kingship assured?

The Romans expected Vaballathus to defer to the prince in Rome, and on trim whim the emperor could fillet Zenobia and Vaballathus’ royal testament choice. In the past 50 age, there had been no less than 19 emperors. The go by one might not take openhearted to Zenobia or her opposing team. Meanwhile, to the Palmyrenes picture monarchy was now hereditary advocate any affront to its strength was an insult to ethics city itself. The question was which city held the better authority: Rome or Palmyra?

Both Zenobia and Roman officials in leadership eastern provinces ask this considerate themselves. The answer had deuce possible outcomes: peace or warfare. Though Palmyra had only fit its first king seven adulthood before, there was no untreated resistance to Vaballathus’ succession among the Roman provincial governors. On the other hand their support for Zenobia’s rule was tenuous, borne from honesty necessity to maintain stability bring into being the Near East.

Zenobia&#;s conquest

Zenobia putupon chaos in Rome to create her authority. Back in Continent, Gallienus had been assassinated esoteric the resulting power vacuum challenging caused trust in Rome’s inside authority to collapse. This legitimate Zenobia to justify a heroic campaign throughout the Levant, premeditated to shore up the weaknesses the Sassanids might exploit bend a second invasion. In following words, she subjugated anyone who refused to accept Palmyrene ascendancy.

Zenobia’s army subjugated Judaea, mortified economic rivals – the Tanûkids of Bostra – and stick Trassus, the Roman governor lacking Arabia (probably to force illustriousness other Roman governors to comply). In short time, Zenobia doomed Petra and all the house up to the Egypt. On the other hand Zenobia was playing a resilient game.

In the summer rejoice AD, she seized control catch the fancy of Antioch&#;s mint. It stopped radio show coins with the name provide the current emperor, Claudius Gothicus, and instead made coins bruiting about her son imperator. This was not, however, tantamount to precise declaration of war against Rome: the term imperator referred come to Vaballathus’ command over the camp, while Zenobia could still insist on that she was acting likewise Rome&#;s representative. But the saturniid, who had become emperor assurance force of arms, knew depiction game Zenobia was playing.

In Venerable AD, news of Claudius Gothicus’ death reached Zenobia. In Accumulation, Claudius’ brother Quintillus competed defence power with Aurelian, a warrior of modest origins. With nobility backing of the Danubian armed force, Aurelian brushed aside Quintillus’ disrespect and installed himself as justness new emperor. Probus, the guide of Egypt, had meanwhile left-wing Alexandria to eliminate Gothic pirates threatening trade in the orientate Mediterranean. The timing was indifferent. A pro-Palmyrene faction emerged backwards Alexandria to encourage Zenobia variety invade. 

Why did Zenobia invade Egypt?

A Palmyrene invasion would cripple Scuffle, which relied on Egypt’s fabric supply, and would inevitably give rise to war between Zenobia and Aurelian. In September AD, Zenobia trustworthy it was worth the critical. With 70, soldiers, the Palmyrene soldiers under general Zabdas at bay the Roman garrisons off-guard; through the winter Probus was archaic and Egypt was under Palmyrene control.   

The following year, Zenobia&#;s general invaded Galatia and supervenient the city of Ankara. According to the 5th-century Byzantine archivist Zosimus, the Palmyrenes attempted encyclopaedia unsuccessful annexation of all splash Asia Minor up to Town on the Bosporus. In depiction summer of AD, the Palmyrene Empire stood at its height. 

Zenobia had so far avoided stimulating Aurelian. This was because Aurelian was preoccupied with Germanic tribes. To safeguard Rome from say publicly Alemanni, Aurelian built massive fortifications around the city. Aurelian was also forced to abandon say publicly province of Dacia to acquit against a Gothic invasion. Have the southern bank of justness Danube, he regrouped the host and won a decisive mastery by killing the Goths’ head Cannabaudes. Aurelian was powerless finish respond to Zenobia.  

To consolidate shepherd territory, Zenobia resumed minting bills with Aurelian’s visage and rectitude title imperator on the opposite and Vaballathus’ face and distinction title of rex on say publicly reverse. The symbolic gesture was designed to portray her devotedness to Rome despite her warlike use of force against Greek provinces. The numismatic evidence keep from papyri documents are all saunter remain of Aurelian’s response say yes Zenobia’s invasion of Egypt.

It seems certain that Aurelian would remote have formally accepted Palmyrene rule over Egypt, but in loftiness short-term he would have bent forced to cooperate with Zenobia to retain access to Egypt&#;s grain. Zenobia’s decision to own these supply lines at buzz, however, was a crucial miscalculation.

Rome or Palmyra?

The literary sources exterior Zenobia’s regency can sometimes endure contradictory. Did Zenobia always design to establish the Palmyrene Luence as independent of Rome? Blurry did she conduct an attack of Egypt to protect Palmyra’s trade network? It&#;s hard compel to believe Zenobia would have involvement turning Rome against her on the assumption that she was happy for Lontar to remain subordinate to Brawl. It&#;s perhaps more plausible lose concentration early in her regency Zenobia envisioned a separate Palmyrene imperium and collapsing Roman authority be on fire an ideal opportunity. 

In the jump AD, Zenobia officially signalled rebuff attempt to break away deseed Rome. She minted coins which omitted Aurelian’s visage entirely boss recognised Vaballathus as Augustus and herself as Augusta. Aurelian difficult long anticipated this move. Care for defeating the Goths, he proceeded to Byzantium. During the chill of AD, he prepared demolish invasion. There was nothing Zenobia could do but wait. Nobleness incursion into western Asia Thin described by Zosimus would accept proved her armies could cry wage an offensive war conflicting Rome. Zenobia ordered her bolster there to retreat to Palmyra. 

Aurelian advances

Most cities in Asia Petite acquiesced to Aurelian without power of endurance, save for Tyana of Cappadocia. Up until that point, Aurelian had brutally sacked every penetrate which had resisted. But bundle up Tyana he had a replacement of heart. He is thought to have dreamt of illustriousness 1st-century AD philosopher Apollonius strip off Tyana, who beseeched Aurelian clump to sack his city. Fulfilment Apollonius’ words, Aurelian spared birth city. Thereafter more cities submitted without a fight. 

Aurelian simultaneously release a second front against Zenobia in Egypt. By summer, Alexandria&#;s garrison had fallen. This two-pronged assault was too much: humdrum than three months after Zenobia had declared her opposition find time for Aurelian, her forces were regulate full retreat. Arabia and Judaea were abandoned in defence style the homeland. 

The battle for Syria

At Immae, 20 miles north illustrate Antioch, Aurelian’s and Zenobia’s millions met. Despite Aurelian’s rapid fulfil to Syria, he was do wary. The Roman infantry was superior, but the Palmyrene mounted troops was still a force theorist be reckoned with. Aware go wool-gathering Zabdas would seek to build his cataphracts, Aurelian devised efficient solution to draw the Palmyrene horses away from his infantry.

Aurelian and Zabdas drew up their forces the next day, staunch their infantry in the midst flanked by their cavalry. Afterwards some skirmishes, Zabdas ordered culminate cavalry to engage the Model horses. With lighter armour, honesty Roman horses could not boot to win out so they retreated, drawing the Palmyrene cataphracts from the battlefield. After fine protracted chase, the Palmyrene soldiery began to tire. But their determination meant they did beg for see the trap closing. 

The Popish cavalry turned to face depiction exhausted Palmyrene cataphracts at final. Completely spent, the Palmyrene horse was decimated in hand disapprove of hand combat. When news reached Zabdas that only a few of his cavalry had reciprocal, he immediately withdrew his foot to spare them from illustriousness same fate at the get a move on of the legionaries. 

Zenobia retreats

That nightly, exhausted and demoralised, Zenobia’s hordes began a mile retreat southeast to Palmyra. Antioch expected harsh retribution. Instead, when Aurelian entered the city, he pardoned pull back. The news of Zenobia’s determining defeat and Aurelian’s mercy cover as cities swore allegiance suggest Rome once more. But Zenobia’s downfall was not yet shut concluded. She commanded great influence annul the region and a chief victory over Aurelian could coarsely him to come to language. At Emesa, miles south weekend away Antioch, Zenobia mustered her residual troops to force one terminal, bloody showdown. 

Who defeated Queen Zenobia?

Aurelian called on detachments from blue blood the gentry legionary garrisons which guarded loftiness border with Sassanid Persia in a jiffy join him, along with men from Cappadocia and Palestine. Muddle through was the height of season and the flat plain Zabdas chose was the perfect battlefield for an honest fight. Kind at Immae, the strength bequest the Palmyrene cataphracts proved cool strategic weakness. Once again, they routed the Roman cavalry challenging gave chase, leaving their foot exposed. Both the Palmyrene foot and cavalry were encircled move massacred. 

All that was left convey Zenobia and her son was the city of Palmyra. Spick year earlier it had anachronistic the centre of a unlimited empire. Now it was barricaded on all sides by representation Third Legion. In an beginning to bring a swift completion to the campaign , Aurelian proposed terms. He promising cause problems spare Zenobia&#;s life and nobility independence of Palmyra. Zenobia retorted that she would sooner magnetism for help from her Sassanid enemies than surrender to him. But the game was raring to go. Sooner or later Palmyra would fall.

How did Queen Zenobia die?

By August AD, Zenobia had nosedive the futility of a undressed siege. Too proud to give up, she and her son unhappy Palmyra for Persia. Before they could cross the Euphrates be selected for Persia, Aurelian caught up jiggle Zenobia. In later Roman financial affairs of Zenobia’s trial, authors would try to portray her orangutan a coward who betrayed pretty up loyal advisors. In the totally of Zenobia’s capture, Palmyra was spared.

Zenobia&#;s fate is the gist of contradictory and far-fetched narratives. In the Augustan History with the chronicle of the 8th-century Byzantine scholar Syncellus, Zenobia goes on to marry a Classical senator and live in great villa outside Rome, bought reawaken her by Aurelian. Zosimus, righteousness 6th-century Byzantine historian describes shipshape and bristol fashion more heroic end for Zenobia, starving herself to death a while ago reaching Rome. On the alcove hand, Zosimus’ contemporary John Malas claims Zenobia and her litter were paraded through the streets of Rome in AD splendid then beheaded. 

Why is Queen Zenobia important?

Queen Zenobia had ruled orangutan regent for five years by means of the time of her overcome in AD, and just unembellished few months since she entitled herself &#;Augusta&#; in the vault of that year.

Amidst the query it is easy to have somebody to stay how impressive Zenobia’s achievements were. Married at 14, a surliness at 18, and a king at 27, ruler of depiction Middle East and one infer the most powerful women need the world. Palmyra&#;s ruins shield the legacy of one loftiness most extraordinary women of probity ancient world. If Zenobia difficult to understand prevailed, the world might face very different today.